Main Article Content

Abstract

Language use is important in a community such as composed of people living with mental health conditions. The researcher aimed to understand depressive language more deeply by looking at the linguistic features, unravelling the process of language consumption as evidenced in the language experiences of depressed people, and determining the dominant ideological representations. Using the 3-Dimensional Framework of Critical Discourse Analysis, the researcher made a thorough investigation on depressive language on Facebook. In the textual analysis, it was revealed that depressive language contains certain linguistic features such as lexical items belonging to different categories, use of self-references, presence of positive and emotions words, and occurrence of words related to status, dominance, and social hierarchy. In the interview with seven depressed people, language experiences include the use of language for various purposes such as for expressing, fighting stigma, getting help, and educating other people. The participants also shared that language could be a reason for triggers and stigma. Based on the linguistic features and the language experiences, it was also found out that certain ideologies are dominant in depressive language such as the existence of stigma in society, death as an escape from pain, inevitability of sadness, and continuous seeking of help and attention. This study is deemed important in advancing more studies in the Philippine context focusing on mental health and language use.

Article Details

How to Cite
Aperocho, M. D., & Tarusan, M. A. E. (2022). Depressive Language on a Virtual Common: A Critical Discourse Analysis. International Journal of Multidisciplinary: Applied Business and Education Research, 3(3), 454-475. https://doi.org/10.11594/ijmaber.03.03.15

References

American Psychiatric Association (2021). Di-agnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). Retrieved from https://www.psychiatry.org/ psychia-trists/practice/dsm on January 22, 2022.
Anderson, C & Galinsky, A.D. (2006). Power, optimism, and risk-taking. European Jour-nal of Social Psychology, 36(4), 511- 536. doi: 10.1002.ejsp.324.
Bhandari, S. (2020). Major depression (clinical depression). WebMD. Retrieved from https://www.webmd.com/depression/guide/major-depression on June 18, 2021.
Beck, A. T. (2002). Cognitive models of depres-sion. In R. L. Leahy & E. T. Dowd (Eds.), Clinical advances in cognitive psy-chotherapy: Theory and Application (pp. 29–61). Springer Publishing Co.
Bell, A. & Garrett, P. (1998). Approaches to me-dia discourse. Wiley-Blackwell.
Bell, B. (2013). ‘Beating the blues’: A critical discourse analysis of a computerized CBT program for depression and anxiety. Manchester Metropolitan University. Re-trieved from e-space.mmu.ac.uk/576553/1/Bell%20(Bethany)%202013% 20(MMU)%20Qualitative.pdf.
Bernard, J. D., Baddeley, J. L., Rodriguez, B. F., & Burke, P. A. (2016). Depression, lan-guage, and affect: An examination of the influence of baseline depression and af-fect induction on language. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 35(3), pp. 317–326. doi:10.1177/0261927X15589186.
Bowers, E.S. (2012). Countering the social stigma of depression. Retrieved from https://www.everydayhealth.com/hs/major-depression/facing-social-stigma-of-depression/ on January 23, 20220.
Brockmeyer, T., Zimmermann, J., Kulessa, D., Hautzinger, M., Bents, H., Friederich, H.C., Backenstrass, M. (2015). Me, myself, and I: Self-referent word use as an indicator of self-focused attention in relation to de-pression and anxiety. Frontiers in Psychol-ogy, 6. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01564.
Bucci, W., & Freedman, N. (1981). The lan-guage of depression. Bulletin of the Men-ninger Clinic, 45(4), pp. 334–358. Re-trieved from psycnet.apa.org/record/1982-25903-001.
Bybee, J. & Beckner, C. (2010). Usage-based theory. University of New Mexico. Re-trieved from www.unm.edu/~jbybee/downloads/BybeeBeckner2010Usage BasedTheory.pdf.
Cheng, P.G., Ramos, R., Bitsch, J., Jonas, S., Ix, T., See, P.L.., Wehrle, K. (2016). Psycholo-gist in a pocket: lexicon development and content validation of a mobile-based app for depression screening. JMIR Mhealth and Uhealth, 4(3). Retrieved from mhealth.jmir.org/2016/3/e88/.
Chouliaraki, L. & Fairclough, N. (1999). Dis-course in late modernity: Rethinking criti-cal discourse analysis. Journal of English Linguistics, 29(2), pp. 183-189. doi: 10.1177/00754240122005305.
Coppersmith, G., Harman, C., & Dredze, M. (2014). Quantifying mental health signals in Twitter. Conference Proceedings of the Workshop on Computational Linguistics and Clinical Psychology: From Linguistic Signal to Clinical Reality, pp. 51-60. doi: 10.3115/v1/W14-3207
De Choudhury, M., Gamon, M., Counts, S. & Horvitz, E. (2013a). Predicting depression via social media. Proceedings of the Sev-enth International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media, pp. 128-137. Retrieved from ojs.aaai.org/index.php/ICWSM/article/view/14432.
De Choudhury, M., Gamon, M., Counts, S. & Horvitz, E. (2013b). Predicting postpar-tum changes in emotion and behavior via social media. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Compu-ting Systems, 3267-3276. doi: 10.1145/2470654.2466447.
De Choudhury, M. & Sushovan, D. (2014). Men-tal health discourse on Reddit: Self-disclosure, social support, and anonymity. ICWSM 2014. Retrieved from www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Mental-Health-Discourse-on-reddit%3A-Self-Disclosure%2C-Choudhur-yDe/e58943b8d656fbb07a14f36b28ae211da74992 a9.
Department of Health (DOH) (2020). Your mind matters: DOH calls for unified re-sponse to mental health. Retrieved from https://doh.gov.ph/press-release/YOUR-MIND-MATTERS-DOH-CALLS-FOR-UNIFIED-RESPONSE-TO-MENTAL-HEALTH on June 18, 2021.
Donges, J. (2009). What your choice of words says about your personality? Scientific American. Retrieved from-www.scientificamerican.com/article/you-are-what-yousay/on June 20, 2021.
Education Development Center (2017). Words matter: How language choice can reduce stigma. Retrieved from https://preventionsolutions.edc.org/sites/defa ult/files/attachments/Words-Matter-How-Language-Choice-Can-Reduce-Stig ma.pdf on January 23, 2022.
Eichstaedt, J., Smith, R., Merchant, R., Ungar, L., Curtchley, P., Pietro, D., Asch, D., & Schwartz, H.A. (2018). Facebook language predicts depression in medical records. PNAS, 115(44), pp. 11203-11208. doi:10.1073/pnas.1802331115.
Ellgring, H., & Scherer, K. R. (1996). Vocal indi-cators of mood change in depres-sion. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 20(2), pp. 83–110. doi: 10.1007/BF02253071.
Elsevier Clinical Skills (2020). Depression. Clin-ical Review, 1-7. Retrieved from www.elsevier.com/data/assets/pdf_file/0003/1002297/Depression-SkillCOVI D-19-Toolkit_140420.pdf.
EveryMind (2022). Language and stigma. Re-trieved from https://everymind.org.au/mental-health/understanding-mental-health/language-and-stigma on January 23, 2022.
Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and power. London: Longman.
Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and text: Lin-guistic and intertextual analysis within discourse analysis. Discourse & Society. doi:10.1177/095792659200300200 4.
Fairclough, N. (1993). Critical discourse analy-sis and the marketization of public dis-course: The universities. Discourse & Soci-ety. SAGE Journals. doi: 10.1177/095792659 3004002002.
Fairclough, N. (1995a). Critical discourse anal-ysis: The critical study of language. Lon-don: Routledge.
Fairclough, N. (1995b). Reviews: Critical dis-course analysis. Journal of English Lin-guistics, 25(1), pp. 76-78. doi: 10.1177/007542429702500106.
Fairclough, N., & Wodak, R. (1997). Critical Discourse Analysis. In T. A. van Dijk (Ed.), Discourse as Social Interaction: Discourse Studies 2 (A Multidisciplinary Introduc-tion) (pp. 258-284). London: Sage
Fine, J. (2006). Language in psychiatry: A handbook of clinical practice. Equinox Publishing.
Fisch, H.U., Frey, S., & Hirsbrunner, H.P. (1983). Analyzing nonverbal behavior in depression. J Abnorm Psychol., 92(3), pp. 307-318. doi: 10.1037//0021-843x.92.3.307.
Fowler, R., Hodge, B., Kress, G., & Trew, T. (1979). Language and control. London: Routledge and Keegan Paul.
Fowler, R. & Hodge, B. (1979). Critical linguis-tics. In R. Fowler et al (Eds.). Language and control. London: Routledge and Kee-gan Paul.
Georgaca, E. (2012). Discourse analytic re-search on mental distress: A critical re-view. Journal of Mental Health, pp. 1-11. doi: 10.3109/09638237.2012.734648.
Goldman, L. (2019). What is depression and what can I do about it? Medical News To-day. Retrieved from www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/8933.
Kress, G. & Hodge, R. (1979). Language as ide-ology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Hogg Foundation for Mental Health (2022). Language matters in mental health. Re-trieved from http://hogg.utexas.edu/news-resources/language-matters-in-mental-health on January 22, 2022.
Hsie, H.F. & Shannon, S. (2005). Three ap-proaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), pp. 1277-1288. doi:10.1177/1049732305276687.
Ibbotson, P. (2013). The scope of usage-based theory. Frontiers in Psychology. Retrieved from www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg. 2013.00255/full on June 18, 2021.
Ingram, R.E., Slater, M.A., Atkinson, J.H., & Scott, W. (1990). Positive automatic cog-nition in major depressive disorder. Psy-chological Assessment, 2(2), pp. 209-2011. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.2.2.209.
Ingram, R.E. & Wisnicki, K.S. (1988). Assess-ment of positive automatic cognition. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychol-ogy, 56(6), pp. 898-902. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.898.
Jensen, I., Jekobsen, I.K., & Pichler, L.H. (2016). A critical discourse study of Hillary Clin-ton’s 2015/2016 presidential campaign discourses. Allborg University. Retrieved from pro-jekter.aau.dk/projekter/files/239472135/Master_s_Thesis .pdf.
Kotikalapudi, R., Chellappan, S., Montgomery, F., Wunsch, D., & Lutzen, K. (2012). Asso-ciating depressive symptoms in college students with internet usage using real in-ternet data. IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, 31(4), pp. 73-80. doi: 10.1109/MTS.2012.2225462.
Krieger, K. (2016). Words of well-being: The relation of an individual’s word choice to their social well-being. Oregon State Uni-versity. Retrieved from ir.library.oregonstate.edu/downloads/j6731783g.
Lally, J., Tully, J., & Samaniego, R. (2019a). Mental health legislation in the Philip-pines: Philippine Mental Health Act. BJPsych International, 16(3), pp. 65-67. doi:10.1192/bji.2018.33.
Lally, J., Tully, J., & Samaniego, R. (2019b). Mental health services in the Philippines. BJPsych International, 16(3), pp. 62-64. doi:10.1192/bji.2018.34.
Legg, T. (2019). What is depression and what can I do about it? Medical News Today. Retrieved from www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/8933 on June 18, 2021.
Lewis, S.E. (1995). A search for meaning: Mak-ing sense of depression. Journal of Mental Health, 4(4), pp. 369-382. doi:10.1080/09638239550037424.
Martinez, A., Co, M., Lau, J., & Brown, J. (2020). Filipino help-seeking for mental health problems and associated barriers and fa-cilitators: A systematic review. Social Psy-chiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55, pp. 1397-1413. doi:10.1007/s00127-020-01937-2.
Mayo Clinic (2017). Mental health: Overcoming the stigma of mental illness. Retrieved from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mental-illness/in-depth/-health/art-20046477 on January 22, 2022.
Miller, W. R. & Seligman, M. E. (1975). Depres-sion and learned helplessness in man. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 84(3), pp. 228–238. doi:10.1037/h0076720.
Moreno, M., Jelenchick, L., Egan, K., Cox, E. et al. (2011). Feeling bad on Facebook: De-pression disclosures by college students on a social networking site. Depression and Anxiety, 28(6), pp. 447-455. doi: 10.1002/da.20805.
MyStory (2019). The importance of language in personal empowerment. Retrieved from https://yourstory.com/mystory/the-importance-of-language-in-personal-empowerment-1q0z84pcxv/amp on Jan-uary 22, 2022.
Newell, E., McCoy, S., Newman, M., Wellman, J., & Gardner, S. (2018). You sound so down: Capturing depressed affect through de-pressed language. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 37(4), pp. 451-474. doi: 10.1177/0261927X17731123.
Pan, J., Liu, B., & Kreps, G. (2018). A content analysis of depression-related discourses on Sina Weibo: Attribution, efficacy, and information sources. BMC Public Health, 18(772), 1-10. doi: 10.1186/s12889-018-5701-5.
Park, M., Cha, C., & Cha, M. (2012). Depressive moods of users captured in Twitter. Proc. ACM SIGKDD Workshop on Healthcare In-formatics (HI-KDD), pp. 1-8. NYU Scholars. Retrieved from https://nyuscholars.nyu.edu/en/publications /depressive-moods-of-users-portrayed-in-twitter.
Paul, M. & Dredze, M. (2011). You are what you tweet: Analyzing Twitter for public health. Proc. ICWSM ’11, 5(1), pp. 265-272. Retrieved from ojs.aaai.org/index.php/ICWSM/article/view/14137.
Pavlova, A. & Berkers, P. (2020). Mental health discourse and social media: Which mech-anisms of cultural power drive discourse on Twitter. Social Science & Medicine, 263. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113250.
Pelt, J.V. (2021). Is ‘Facebook Depression’ for real? Social Work Today. Retrieved from www.socialworktoday.com/archive/exc_080811.shtml on June 18, 2021.
Pennebaker, J., Mehl, M., & Niederhoffer, K. (2003). Psyhological aspects of natural language use: Our words, our selves. An-nual Review Psychology, 54, pp. 547-577. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145041.
Puyat, J., Conaco, M.C., Natividad, J., & Banal, M.A. (2021). Depressive symptoms among young adults in the Philippines: Results from a nationwide cross-sectional survey. Journal of Affective Disorders Reports, 3. pp. 1-8. doi: 10.1016/j.jadr.2020.100073.
Rahimi, F. & Riasati, M.J. (2011). Critical dis-course analysis: Scrutinizing ideological-ly-driven discourses. International Jour-nal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 1(6), pp. 107-112. doi:10.30845/ijhss.
Rainey, J. (2020). Suicide warning signs: What to watch for and do. Retrieved from https://www.webmd.com/depression/guide/depression-recognizing-signs-of-suicide on January 23, 2022.
Rashidi, N. & Souzandehfar, M. (2010). A criti-cal discourse analysis of the debates be-tween Republicans and Democrats over the continuation of war in Iraq. Journal of Linguistic and Intercultural Education, 3, pp. 55-82. doi: 10.29302/jolie.2010.3.4.
Rivas, R. (2021). Suicide cases rise in PH as pandemic drags on. Rappler. Retrieved from www.rappler.com/nation/suicide-rises-philippines-pandemic-drags-on2021 on June 18, 2021.
Rude, S.S., Gortner, E.M., & Pennebaker, J.W. (2004). Language use of depressed and depression-vulnerable college student. Cognition & Emotion, 18(8), pp. 1121-1133. doi:10.1080/02699930441000030.
Shaikh, A., Shaikh, F., Ramzan, S., & Patil, M.M. (2018). Clinical depression detection us-ing speech feature with machine learning approach. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development, 2(4), pp. 1437-1440. doi: 10.31142/ijtsrd14363.
Singapore International Foundation (2019). Mental health in Asia: The numbers. Our Better World. Retrieved from www.ourbetterworld.org/series/mental-health/facts/mental-health-asia-num-bers?type=resource&gclid=CjwKCAjw_ JuGBhBkEi-wA1xmbRe4NjmN4bpN1NhYr_IF4v5lpVmeJqM2ffIE2cmqMCnrn7QkUiPrV2xoCr9UQAvD_BwE on June 18, 2021.
Smirnova, D.A. (2011). Clinical linguistics as the basic element of methodological knowledge in psychotherapy. Asian Jour-nal of Psychiatry, 4, pp. 27. doi: 10.1016/S1876-2018(11)60107-X.
Stasak, B. (2018). An investigation of acoustic, linguistic, and affect based methods for speech depression assessment. University of New South Wales. Retrieved from han-dle.unsw.edu.au/1959.4/61278.
Stassen, H. H., Bomben, G., & Günther, E. (1991). Speech characteristics in depres-sion. Psychopathology, 24(2), pp. 88–105. doi:10.1159/000284700.
Stirman, S.W. & Pennebaker, J.W. (2001). Word use in the poetry of suicidal and non-suicidal poets. Psychosomatic Medi-cine, 63(4), pp. 517-522. doi: 10.1097/00006842-200107000-00001
Tanaka, C., Tulioa, M.T., Tanaka, E., Yamashita, T., & Matsuo, H. (2018). A qualitative study on the stigma experienced by peo-ple with mental health problems and epi-lepsy in the Philippines. BMC Psychiatry, 18(325), pp. 1-13. doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1902-9.
Tausczik, Y. & Pennebaker, J. (2010). The psy-chological meaning of words. LIWC and computerized text analysis methods. Journal of Language and Social Psycholo-gy, 29(1), pp. 24-54. doi: 10.1177/0261927X09351676.
Tølbøll, K.B. (2019). Linguistic features in de-pression: A meta-analysis. Journal of Lan-guage Works, 4(2), pp. 39-59. Journal of Language Works. Retrieved from tidsskrift.dk/lwo/article/view/117798/165815.
Trew, T. (1979). Theory and ideology at work. Routledge.
Trifu, R.N., Nemes, B., Bodea-Hategan, C., & Cozman, D. (2017). Linguistic indicators of language in major depressive disorder (MDD). An evidence based research. Jour-nal of Evidence-Based Psychotherapies, 17(1), pp. 105-128. APA PsycNet. Re-trieved from psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-23992-007.
van Dijk, T. (1998). Discourse and ideology. Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary In-troduction. Retrieved from www.discourses.org/OldArticles/Discourse%20 and %20Ideology.pdf.
Walter, M. (2015). Language effects on mental health stigma. Washburn University. Re-trieved from https://wuir.washburn.edu/bitstream/handle/10425/1775/11. pdf?seq uence=1&isAllowed=y on January 22, 2022.
Wang, J. (2010). A critical discourse analysis of Barack Obama’s speeches. Journal of Lan-guage Teaching and Research, 1(3), pp. 254-261. doi:10.4304/jltr.1.3.254-261.
Weiss, G. & Wodak, R. (2003). Critical dis-course analysis: Theory and interdiscipli-narity. Palgrave Macmillan.

Welch, C. (2019). Exploring the discourse of mental illness and employment. University of Canterbury Research Repository. Re-trieved from ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/16752.
Wolohan, J., Hiraga, M., Mukherjee, A., & Sayyed, Z.A. (2018). Detecting linguistic traces of depression in topic-restricted text: Attending to self-stigmatized depres-sion with NLP. Proceedings of the 1st In-ternational Workshop on Language Cog-nition and Computational Models, pp. 11-21. doi:10.18653/v1/P17.
Wongkoblap, A., Vadillo, M., & Curcin, V. (2017). Researching mental health disor-der in the era of social media: Systematic review. J Med Internet Res, 19(6). doi:10.2196/jmir.7215.
World Health Organization (2018). Mental health: Strengthening our response. World Health Organization. Retrieved from www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-health-strengthening-our-response.
World Health Organization (2017). Depression and other common mental disorders. Global health estimates. World Health Or-ganization. Retrieved from apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/254610.
World Health Organization (2017). Data and statistics. Prevalence of mental disorder. World Health Organization. Retrieved from www.who.int/health-topics/mental-health#tab=tab_1.
Yadav, S., Chauhan, J., Sain, J.P., Thirunarayan, K., Sheth, A., & Schumm, J. (2020). Identi-fying depressive symptoms from tweets: Figurative language enabled multitask learning framework. Cornell University. Retrieved from arxiv.org/abs/2011.06149.